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Kava Research Part 2

Kava Research

Kava Research Part 2

General Kava FAQ

General Kava FAQ - Pt. 2

Cultivars, Grinds & Kavalactones

Is Kava Safe?

Kava Terms and Videos

Therapeutic Uses, Effects, Addiction

Kavaforums

Caffeine And Kava

Cultural Topics

Open Access Article
Aporosa, S. G. (2006). Yaqona and Education in Fiji: A Clash of Cultures?

Abstract:
In the Fiji Islands, education has been adopted as a key driver in the pursuit of national development and economic growth. However, low academic achievement appears to be undermining this strategic focus with the Fijian Ministry of Education questioning whether cultural values and practices, such as the consumption of yaqona (commonly known throughout the Pacific as kava) by teachers, is contributing to this scholastic failure. Since 2005 I have been investigating the culture of yaqona‟ (the etiquette associated with the use and consumption of kava) and its relationship with education delivery, under-achievement and development in Fiji. This research has identified a number of practice/theory contradictions. In this paper I will discuss these inconsistencies which have created a culture/education/development clash, together with the use of a post-development framework as part of investigating this juxtaposition.
(https://www.academia.edu/1134788/Yaqona_kava_Education_and_Development_in_Fiji)

Balick, M. J., & Lee, R. A. (2009). The Sacred Root. In Ethnobotany of Pohnpei.

(https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824837495-008)

Ben Dhaou, S. I. & Rohman, I. K. Everything and its opposite. 80, 631-639 (2018).

(https://www.jstor.org/stable/30052773)

Guiart, J., JOHN FRUM MOVEMENT IN TANNA. Oceania 22, 165-177 (1952).

(https://www.jstor.org/stable/40328340)

Open Access Document
Aporosa, S. A., Yaqona ( Kava ) As a Symbol of Cultural Identity. , 79-101 (2012).

Abstract:
Yaqona (more commonly known as kava), when coupled with its associated rituals and practices, is commonly recognised as a potent symbol of Fijian identity. However, there are some indigenous Fijians (iTaukei) who dispute this link, renouncing a connection between yaqona protocols, ceremony and conventions and their sense of cultural identity, therefore dissociating themselves from these practices. In this paper I draw on evidence from the literature together with observations and interviews to explain why some iTaukei distance themselves from yaqona consumption and the fullness of its cultural expression.
(https://localejournal.org/issues/n4/Locale n4 - 08 - Aporosa.pdf)

Open Access Article
Apo' Aporosa}, S. '., The new kava user: Diasporic identity formation in reverse. New Zealand Sociology 30, 58-77 (2015).

Abstract:
Diaspora' studies have broadened their definition to now include hybridised identities situated in both the past and future. The formation of the Indo-Fijian ethnicity is an example of the evolution of a hybrid diasporic identity. This article briefly discusses Indo-Fijian diaspora in Fiji before shifting its focus to Aotearoa New Zealand. In this new setting, diaspora understanding will take a new direction that concentrates on the uptake of kava drinking and aspects of the kava culture by some Māori and Pālangi/Pākehā. In doing so, the article examines how these Māori and Pālangi/Pākehā, as the 'hosts', are expanding their cultural identity by embracing an icon of identity that came with a diasporic population – Pasifikans to Aotearoa – essentially creating diasporic identity formation in reverse
(https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/12796)

Open Access Article
Aporosa, S. A., Kava and Ethno-cultural Identity in Oceania. The Palgrave Handbook of Ethnicity , 1-15 (2019).

Abstract:
Garibaldi and Turner (Ecol Soc 9:1, 5, 2004) explain the role that particular plants play in facilitating the shared ancestry, practices, and social experience of an ethnicity. This can include spiritual connections, cultural expression and practice, ceremony, exchange, linguistic reflection, socialization, and medicinal and/or dietary systems. They term these plants “cultural keystone species” and icons of identity, plants that if removed would cause some disruptions to the cultural practices and identity of an ethnic group. Undoubtedly, kava (Piper methysticum) is the cultural keystone species for many Oceanic and Pacific peoples, a “differentiating element of common culture” (Zagefka, Ethnicity, concepts of. In: Smith AD, Hou X, Stone J, Dennis R, Rizova P (eds) The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and nationalism. West Wiley, Sussex, pp 761–763, 2016) informing their ethno-cultural identity. That influence is also extending to new non-Pacific Island user groups who have embraced elements of kava ethno-cultural identity in what has been termed diasporic identity formation in reverse. This chapter will discuss kava with specific reference to ethnic positionality in Fiji while recognizing the tensions from inside and outside the region that support and threaten the continuance of the kava drinking tradition.
(https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/12377)

Open Access Article
Aporosa, S. A., Atkins, M. & Leov, J. N. Decolonising quantitative methods within a Pacific research space to explore cognitive effects following kava use. Pacific Dynamics 5, 2021 (2021).

Abstract:
Work that challenges Western hegemonic research traditions, through use of innovative and alternative approaches as part of ‘decolonising methodologies’, is increasingly being validated by research funding bodies, post-graduate research and large-scale projects. This paper explains a feasibility study that combined a Pacific respect-based cultural methodology with a counter-hegemonic development theory to create a post development methodological framework (PDMF). The framework was then used to guide the culturally ethical use of Western psychometric measures at a naturalistic kava-use setting. Not only does the study demonstrate the viability of the PDMF and the naturalistic kava use setting—or faikava methodology—as a valid tool for collecting data in a study conducted pursuant to a major research award, it also builds on a growing body of work aimed at decolonising Pacific methodologies.
(https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/14153)

Sofer, M., Yaqona and the Fijian periphery revisited. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 48, 234-249 (2007).

Abstract:
This paper deals with some major economic issues concerning the Pacific plant kava, known in Fiji as yaqona. The plant is the source of the cerebral depressant beverage found throughout many of the Pacific Islands, which besides its daily use plays an important ceremonial and social role in the indigenous culture. This paper deals with yaqona cultivation and commercialisation in the Fijian peripheral island of Kadavu, from a perspective of more than 20 years. The findings suggest that the role of the plant as a major cash crop is even more important than it was in the first half of the 1980s. Moreover, the village semi‐subsistence economy has become increasingly dependent on this crop as part of its survival strategy. The explanations offered are related to physical and ecological conditions and the associated agrotechnical advantages in Kadavu; marketing advantages and worsening terms of trade experienced by the Fijian periphery; and the lack of other economic opportunities in peripheral areas of Fiji, such as Kadavu – in turn, a function of core–periphery relationships. This is a response of the periphery to the increasing marginalisation within the Fiji state and may imply villagers' and communities' acceptance of their marginal position in the economy.
(https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8373.2007.00342.x)

Open Access Article
Aporosa, S. A., De-mythologizing and re-branding of kava as the new ‘world drug' of choice. Drug Science, Policy and Law 5, 205032451987613 (2019).

Abstract:
What seemed impossible 50 years ago is today becoming a reality as ‘soft drugs’ such as cannabis are being decriminalized and accepted for their calming effects as well as their legitimate medicinal properties. Several countries have now made the possession of cannabis legal, with others considering this, while the coffee shops in the Netherlands have been supplying cannabis in different forms for many years. It is now the turn of kava to be re-evaluated, to see whether there are properties in this plant that might be readily substituted for more conventional and harmful drugs, for instance tobacco and alcohol. However, as highlighted by Norton and Ruze (1994), kava like cannabis, has an enduring reputation that still makes it difficult for many to accept. Kava has been mythologized as an illicit alcohol, highly addictive, and causing physical harm. When examining the history of kava use in traditional contexts and considering the evidence now available, it is possible to demythologize this characterization. Looking at the potential benefits, it is time to re-brand kava, not only on the grounds as a relaxant, but in possessing life enhancing medicinal properties and as an alternative to alcohol, understanding that will be beneficial to policy makers, doctors and pharmacists.
(https://doi.org/10.1177/2050324519876131)

Showman, A. F., Baker, J. D., Linares, C., Naeole, C. K., Borris, R., Johnston, E., Konanui, J. & Turner, H. Contemporary Pacific and Western perspectives on 'awa (Piper methysticum) toxicology. Fitoterapia 100, 56-67 (2015).

Abstract:
In 2010, a National Science Foundation project in Hawai`i assembled a collaboration of Pacific indigenous scientists, Hawaiian cultural practitioners and scientists trained in Western pharmacology. The objective of the collaborative project was to study Kava, a culturally significant Pacific beverage, and to address and ultimately transcend, long-standing barriers to communication and collaboration between these groups. Kava is a product of the `awa plant (Piper methysticum) that has been used ceremonially and medicinally throughout the history of Pacific Island cultures, and is now in widespread recreational and nutraceutical use in the US. This project, culminating in 2015, has enriched the participants, led to published work that integrates cultural and Western pharmacologic perspectives and established a paradigm for collaboration. This review paper integrates cultural and Western perspectives on efficacy, toxicity and the future cultural and commercial significance of `awa in the Pacific. Here we present a detailed review of traditional and non-traditional kava usage, medicinal efficacy and potential toxicological concerns. Recent mechanistic data on physiological action and potential pathological reactions are evaluated and interpreted.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2014.11.012)

Tecun, A., Reeves, R. & Wolfgramm, M. The past before US: A brief history of tongan kava. Journal of the Polynesian Society 129, 171-192 (2020).

Abstract:
This article examines deep and contemporary history through analysis of the Tongan kava origin story, a kava chant, the rise of the kalapu ‘kava club’ in the twentieth century and the growing expansion of contemporary kava. It is argued that a key function of past and present kava practices is a ritual liminality of noa ‘neutralisation of protective restrictions’ that results from mediating mana ‘potency, honour’ and tapu ‘protective restrictions, set apart’. This is supported through ethnohistorical literature, song lyrics and ethnographic data. While the expressions, purpose, material and uses of kava evolve and change throughout time and space, from the titular ceremonies to the social rituals, they are connected through contextually specific mediations that establish noa. The kava origin story indicates a performance of mediations between ancient power relations, while the kava chant describes material culture alongside the establishment of the ritualised chiefly kava ceremony. Kalapu and the expanding contemporary kava practices today maintain connections to past practices while adapting to current circumstances such as global Tongan mobility and cultural diversity.
(https://doi.org/10.15286/jps.129.2.171-192)

Geographic Topics

Sarris J, Teschke R, Stough C, Scholey A, Schweitzer I. Re-introduction of kava (Piper methysticum) to the EU: is there a way forward? Planta Med. 2011 Jan;77(2):107-10. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1250290. Epub 2010 Sep 2. PMID: 20814850.

Abstract:
Kava (Piper methysticum) is an effective anxiolytic that has been withdrawn from various consumer markets in European countries due to concerns over its hepatotoxicity. It is plausible that the reported hepatotoxicity may be due in part to plant substitution, or an incorrect cultivar, or plant parts being used (such as leaves or bark); thus both the plant chemotype and the plant part used may be critical factors. If re-institution of kava in the EU is to occur, more evidence is required to determine its safety and efficacy. Furthermore, according to current evidence, the study of traditional water soluble rhizome extracts using a noble cultivar of kava may be advised. The Kava Anxiety-Lowering Medication (KALM) project is due to start in late 2010 to address these considerations. The KALM project uses an aqueous rhizome extract of a noble cultivar of kava in participants with generalised anxiety and Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD). The project comprises of 1) an acute RCT, kava (180 mg of kavalactones) versus oxazepam and placebo in 20 anxious people, testing effects on cognition, mood, anxiety, and driving; 2) an 8-week RCT comparing kava (120 mg kavalactones) versus placebo in 100 patients with GAD. To assess differences between dosages, non-responders at 3 weeks will be titrated to 240 mg of kavalactones. The project will also assess the effects of kava on liver function tests and its side effects profile. A novel component of the project is the pharmacogenomic exploration of phenotypical responses (GABA system and cytochrome P450 markers). The results of the study may be of benefit to sufferers of anxiety and the future economy of the Pacific islands, potentially providing an important step in the way forward with kava.
(https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0030-1250290)

Open Access Document
Republic of Vanuatu, Kava Act No 7 of 2002
(https://biosecurity.gov.vu/images/Export/kava-act-2002.pdf)

Lindstrom, L., Kava Pirates in Vanuatu?. International Journal of Cultural Property 16, 291-308 (2009).

Abstract:
Cultural property activists have worried about the bioprospecting, or even biopiracy, of kava (Piper methysticum), a plant exchanged and consumed for many Pacific social and ritual purposes. By the 1990s, kava and concoctions made from the plant's component kavalactones were increasingly popular products within global markets for recreational and medicinal drugs. Starting in 2002, however, a number of European countries among others banned kava imports after initial reports that some heavy users suffered liver damage. This has complicated the kava story as producer efforts shifted from protecting rights to the plant to reopening blocked export markets. The difficulty is to both push kava into global markets while protecting local rights to the plant. A promising strategy may be developing consumer awareness of geographic indicators and “noble” kava varieties that Vanuatu's local producers may control yet globally market as “the best in the world.”
(https://doi.org/10.1017/S0940739109990208)

Jayararnan, T. K., BUILDING ECONOMIC RESILIENCE : THE CASE OF VANUATU. Economic Vulnerability and Resilience of Small States. , 135-148 (2004).

Abstract:
The objectives of this chapter are twofold, namely (i) to analyse the causes behind the economic vulnerability of Vanuatu and (ii) to evaluate the efforts of this small island state to build up economic resilience in order to achieve economic growth and higher living standards. It is well known that a number of inherently vulnerable small states have, through good governance and appropriate economic policies, succeeded in withstanding the impact of external shocks and registered acceptable rates of economic growth. There is no reason why Vanuatu cannot do the same. This chapter shows that in Vanuatu, man-made policies, including fiscal inflexibility and poor governance, have exacerbated the drawbacks associated with economic vulnerability. The chapter argues that Vanuatu will always remain inherently vulnerable, and it is therefore important that economic policy in this island state be geared towards strengthening economic resilience to cope with vulnerability. Good governance and sound macroeconomic policies are singled out for this purpose.
(https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/61288)

Open Access Document
Lebot, V., Aradhya, M. & Manshardt, R. Geographic Survey of Genetic Variation in Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.and P. wichmannii C. DC.). Pacific Science 45, 169-185 (1991).

Abstract:
A survey of the genetic resources of kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f. and P. wichmannii C. DC.) was conducted throughout the Pacific. Leaf tissues of more than 300 accessions, collected on 35 islands, were analyzed for isozyme variation in eight enzyme systems including ACO, ALD, DIA, IDH, MDH, ME, PGI, and PGM. Isozymes in P. methysticum cultivars from Polynesia and Micronesia were monomorphic for all enzyme systems examined; however, cultivars from Melanesia were polymorphic for ACO, DIA, MDH, and PGM. The genetic base of this crop is much narrower than previous morphological and biochemical studies suggest. Most of the morphotypes and chemotypes apparently originated through human selection and preservation of somatic mutations in a small number of original clones. Isozymes of P. wichmannii confirmed its status as the wild progenitor of kava. Piper methysticum cultivars and P. wichmannii and P. gibbilimbum C. DC. wild forms were all found to be decaploids with 2n = lOx = 130 chromosomes, but there was no firm evidence that interspecific hybridization has played a role in the origin of P.methysticum.
(https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/518/1/v45n2-169-185.pdf)

Robinson, D., Raven, M., Makin, E., Kalfatak, D., Hickey, F. & Tari, T. Legal geographies of kava, kastom and indigenous knowledge: Next steps under the Nagoya Protocol. Geoforum , (2020).

Abstract:
A binding international regulatory regime over access and benefit-sharing relating to biological resources and related traditional (including Indigenous) knowledge was established through the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2010 (Nagoya Protocol), which entered into force in October 2014. The Nagoya Protocol encourages country Parties to take into consideration Indigenous and local communities’ customary laws, community protocols and procedures, as applicable, with respect to traditional knowledge associated with genetic resources and encourages support for the creation of community protocols. With a focus on the kava plant (Piper methysticum), this article explores some of the issues associated with implementation of the Nagoya Protocol at state and community scales. We explore concerns around patent activity and the potential impacts upon customary uses of kava especially in Vanuatu. We then consider some of the recent activities and reforms being undertaken in relation to kastom in Vanuatu, which may be of relevance for the development of access and benefit-sharing regimes and for the improved regional protection of Indigenous knowledge.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.11.001)

Economic Studies

Cox, P. A. & O'Rourke, L. Kava (Piper methysticum, Piperaceae). Economic Botany 41, 452-454 (1987).
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/4254999)

Baker, J. D., Pills, potions, products: Kava's transformations in new and nontraditional contexts. Contemporary Pacific 24, 233-265 (2012).

Abstract:
This article focuses on kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst, Piperaceae) in its various forms: plant, beverage, medicine, and dietary supplement. Specifically, I examine a relatively unexplored dimension of kava's use: the ways in which both the form and the use of kava are changing as it is introduced into new and different cultural contexts. Kava's popularity outside Oceania has led to changes in how and why it is used, as well as transformations in the form in which people consume it. The best known of these is the manufacture of kava-containing pills and tinctures, which are marketed for treating anxiety and depression in Western countries. But kava is also undergoing a transformation into an alcohol-like recreational analogue, and it is being incorporated into a range of food products. In this article, I first seek to document some of these transformations and to describe the contexts into which kava has been introduced. Second, I analyze these transformations and attempt to frame them within larger discourses about medicines, recreational intoxicants, and notions of authenticity and exoticism. Finally, I speculate about the future face of kava. The collapse of demand for kava for use in dietary supplements provides a second chance for kava growers and wholesale distributors to consider how they want kava to be represented and sold to the wider world. The article's conclusion outlines some of the ongoing efforts to shape this future, while highlighting some of the lessons that might be learned by considering the problems associated with the previous kava boom.
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/cp.2012.0026)

Botanical Topics

Vandenbroucke, H., Mournet, P., Malapa, R., Glaszmann, J. C., Chair, H. & Lebot, V. Comparative analysis of genetic variation in kava (Piper methysticum) assessed by SSR and DArT reveals zygotic foundation and clonal diversification. Genome 58, 1-11 (2015).

Abstract:
Kava (Piper methysticum) is a major cash crop in the Pacific. The aim of this study was to assess genetic variation among 103 accessions of kava using SSRs and DArTs. Genetic structure was determined using clustering analyses (WPGMA) and principal coordinate analyses (PCA). Thirteen SSR primers and 75 DArT markers were found polymorphic, and the two types of markers generated similar clustering patterns. Genetic distances ranged from 0 to 0.65 with an average of 0.24 using SSRs and from 0 to 0.64 with an average of 0.24 using DArT. Eleven genotypes were identified with SSR while 28 genotypes were identified with DArT markers. By combining the two sets of markers, a total of only 30 distinct genotypes were observed. In the Vanuatu archipelago, noble cultivars originating from different islands clustered together within a very narrow genetic base despite their diversity of morphotypes. SSR and DArT fingerprints allowed the identification of kava cultivars unsuitable for consumption, so called two-days, and clearly differentiated the wild types classified as P. methysticum var. wichmannii from the cultivars as var. methysticum. Molecular data reveals that all noble cultivars evolved by the predominance of clonal selection. Although they are represented by clearly distinct morphotypes, these cultivars are genetically vulnerable and their potential to adapt to forthcoming changes is limited. These newly developed markers provide high resolution and will be useful for kava diversity analyses and quality assessment.
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25973616/)

Open Access Article
Lebot, V., Do, T. K. & Legendre, L. Detection of flavokavins (A, B, C) in cultivars of kava (Piper methysticum) using high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC). Food Chem. 151, 554-560 (2014).

Abstract:
Kava is an important neuroactive medicinal plant. While kava has a large global consumer footprint for its clinical and recreational use, factors related to its use lack standardization and the tissue-specific metabolite profile of its neuroactive constituents is not well understood.
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24423570/)

Vandenbroucke, H., Mournet, P., Malapa, R., Glaszmann, J. C., Chair, H. & Lebot, V. Colorimetric assessment of kava (Piper methysticum Forst) quality. Genome 58, 1-11 (2015).

Abstract:
The present study aimed at evaluating the potential of diethyl ether extracts UV/visible (UV/vis) absorbance for assessing the suitability of commercial lots of kava (Piper methysticum). The UV/vis absorption spectra of diethyl ether root extracts of 15 cultivars clustered them into three groups in parallel to their known genetic relatedness and their chemical composition determined by GC–MS and LC–MS analyses. Absorption peaks at 250 nm and 290 nm respectively corresponded to kavain, the most health-promoting kavalactone, and dihydromethysticin a non-desirable kavalactone. The absorbance peak at 340–350 nm reflected the yellow coloration of the extract, which was mainly due to the undesirable flavokavins, desmethoxyyangonin and yangonin. Ratios of absorbance values at 250 nm and 290 nm significantly differentiated all three groups of cultivars, namely ‘noble’ which provide health benefits from ‘two-day’ and ‘wichmannii’ that are health damaging. These results provide a robust and rapid colorimetric test for routine control of a critical aspect of the quality of kava batches.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.02.005)

Lebot, V. & Levesque, J. Genetic control of kavalactone chemotypes in Piper methysticum cultivars. Phytochemistry 43, 397-403 (1996).

Abstract:
The chemical composition of 121 cultivars of Piper methysticum originating from 51 Pacific islands, were investigated using HPLC. The results obtained for six major kavalactones (demethoxy-yangonin, dihydrokavain, yangonin, kavain, dihydromethysticin and methysticin) were submitted to cluster analysis and six distinct chemotypes were identified. Three field experiments demonstrated that chemotypes are not affected by environmental factors but are controlled genetically. Analysis of the isozyme variation for eight enzyme systems, revealed that these cultivars exhibited only three zymotypes. These are so similar that the differences in malate dihydrogenase and diaphorase could be explained as mutations. Few genes are thought to be responsible for the chemotype variation between cultivated clones. Because all cultivars are decaploids and sterile, it is suggested that mutagenesis might be used to induce genetic variability and to improve cultivar chemotypes.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9422(96)00209-9)

Lebot, V. & Legendre, L. Comparison of kava (Piper methysticum Forst.) varieties by UV absorbance of acetonic extracts and high-performance thin-layer chromatography. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 48, 25-33 (2016).

Abstract:
The development of quality standards to regulate the trade of kava (Piper methysticum) in the Pacific necessitates new analytical techniques for routine control of high-quality raw material. In the present study, varieties and parts of the plant were compared for their kavalactone and flavokavin (FK) profiles. Three hundred and eight samples corresponding to 25 noble, 25 two-days and five wichmannii varieties were collected from 203 different plants. Commercial samples were also analysed to test the technique. Overall, 353 samples were prepared (221 roots, 114 stumps, nine basal stems and nine stem peelings). Their acetonic extracts were measured for UV absorbance and analysed by HP-TLC. Two ratios were computed after scanning the plates at 245 nm (K/KL = kavain/total kavalactones) and 366 nm (FK/KL = flavokavins/kavalactones). The results indicate that noble varieties suitable for daily consumption of kava are characterised by high K/KL and low FK/KL. At 400 nm, the mean UV absorbance of acetonic extracts from noble, two-days and wichmannii varieties are 0.69, 0.94 and 1.04, respectively. The significant (+0.757**) correlation between the total FK content and the extracts absorbance at 400 nm indicates that a simple colorimeter can be used to detect poor-quality raw material.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2016.01.009)

Lhuissier, T., Mercier, P. E., Michalet, S., Lebot, V. & Legendre, L. Colorimetric assessment of kava (Piper methysticum Forst.) quality. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 59, 27-34 (2017).

Abstract:
The present study aimed at evaluating the potential of diethyl ether extracts UV/visible (UV/vis) absorbance for assessing the suitability of commercial lots of kava (Piper methysticum). The UV/vis absorption spectra of diethyl ether root extracts of 15 cultivars clustered them into three groups in parallel to their known genetic relatedness and their chemical composition determined by GC–MS and LC–MS analyses. Absorption peaks at 250 nm and 290 nm respectively corresponded to kavain, the most health-promoting kavalactone, and dihydromethysticin a non-desirable kavalactone. The absorbance peak at 340–350 nm reflected the yellow coloration of the extract, which was mainly due to the undesirable flavokavins, desmethoxyyangonin and yangonin. Ratios of absorbance values at 250 nm and 290 nm significantly differentiated all three groups of cultivars, namely ‘noble’ which provide health benefits from ‘two-day’ and ‘wichmannii’ that are health damaging. These results provide a robust and rapid colorimetric test for routine control of a critical aspect of the quality of kava batches.
(https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.02.005)

Lebot, V., & Levesque, J. (1989). THE ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF KAVA (PIPER METHYSTICUM FORST. F., PIPERACEAE): A PHYTOCHEMICAL APPROACH. Allertonia, 5(2), 223–281.

Abstract:
After a taxonomic clarification and a review of the ethnobotanical data about kava, an attempt is made to elucidate the origin of this Oceanian plant. For this purpose, an ecogeographical survey of the genetic resources of the plant species Piper methysticum Forst, f. and P. wichmannii C. DC. was conducted throughout the Pacific. Local cultivars were collected from 42 different islands, planted in germplasm collections, and described. One hundred eighteen different kava cultivars were identified through morphological differentiation. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) on more than 200 root samples revealed the existence of various chemotypes. Analysis of quantity variation in kavalactone content was carried out by using cluster analysis and multifactorial analysis. Field trials of various cultivars indicated that the chemotype was not related to environmental factors or ontogeny, but to genotype. The lineage of the chemotypes suggested that P. wichmannii was the wild species from which farmers domesticated cultivars of P. methysticum.
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/23187398)

Smith, T. E., Djang, M., Velander, A. J., Downey, C. W., Carroll, K. A. & Van Alphen, S. Versatile asymmetric synthesis of the kavalactones: First synthesis of (+)-kavain. Org. Lett. 6, 2317-2320 (2004).

Abstract:
Three asymmetric pathways to the kavalactones have been developed. The first method is chiral auxiliary-based and utilizes aldol reactions of N-acetyl thiazolidinethiones followed by a malonate displacement/decarboxylation reaction. The second approach uses the asymmetric catalytic Mukaiyama additions of dienolate nucleophile equivalents developed by Carreira and Sato. Finally, tin-substituted intermediates, prepared by either of these routes, can serve as advanced general precursors of kavalactone derivatives via Pd(0)-catalyzed Stille couplings with aryl halides.
(https://doi.org/10.1021/ol0493960)

Open Access Document
Lebot, V. & Cabalion, P. KAVAS OF VANUATU: Cultivars of Piper Methysticum Forst. South Pacific Commission , 3-191 (1998).


(https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39867287.pdf)

Pluskal, T., Torrens-Spence, M. P., Fallon, T. R., De Abreu, A., Shi, C. H. & Weng, J. K. The biosynthetic origin of psychoactive kavalactones in kava. Nature Plants 5, 867-878 (2019).

Abstract:
For millennia, humans have used plants for medicinal purposes. However, our limited understanding of plant biochemistry hinders the translation of such ancient wisdom into modern pharmaceuticals1. Kava (Piper methysticum) is a medicinal plant native to the Polynesian islands with anxiolytic and analgesic properties supported by over 3,000 years of traditional use as well as numerous recent clinical trials2–5. The main psychoactive principles of kava, kavalactones, are a unique class of polyketide natural products known to interact with central nervous system through mechanisms distinct from those of the prescription psychiatric drugs benzodiazepines and opioids6,7. Here we report de novo elucidation of the biosynthetic pathway of kavalactones, consisting of seven specialized metabolic enzymes. Based on phylogenetic and crystallographic analyses, we highlight the emergence of two paralogous styrylpyrone synthases, both of which have neofunctionalized from an ancestral chalcone synthase to catalyze the formation of the kavalactone scaffold. Structurally diverse kavalactones are then biosynthesized by subsequent regio- and stereo-specific tailoring enzymes. We demonstrate the feasibility of engineering heterologous production of kavalactones and their derivatives in bacterial, yeast, and plant hosts, thus opening an avenue towards the development of new psychiatric therapeutics for anxiety disorders, which affect over 260 million people globally8.
(https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/294439v1.full)

Xuan, T. D., Elzaawely, A. A., Fukuta, M. & Tawata, S. Herbicidal and fungicidal activities of lactones in Kava (Piper methysticum). J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 720-725 (2006).

Abstract:
This is the first report showing that kava lactones are plant and plant fungus growth inhibitors. Aqueous extract of kava roots showed high allelopathic potential and strongly suppressed germination and growth of lettuce, radish, barnyardgrass, and monochoria. Nine kava lactones were detected using GC-MS including desmethoxyyagonin, kavain, 7,8-dihydrokavain, hydroxykavain, yagonin, 5,6,7,8-tetrahydroxyyagonin, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, and 11-hydroxy-12-methoxydihydrokavain. Quantities of desmethoxyyagonin, kavain, 7,8-dihydrokavain, yagonin, methysticin, and dihydromethysticin detected were 4.3, 6.9, 18.6, 5.7, 1.4, and 5.4 mg/g of dry weight, respectively. These six major lactones in kava roots showed great herbicidal and antifungal activities. Growth of lettuce and barnyardgrass were significantly inhibited at 1−10 ppm, and four plant fungi including Colletotrichum gloeosporides, Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, and Trichoderma viride were significantly inhibited at 10−50 ppm. The biological activities of kava lactones were characterized by different double-bond linkage patterns in positions 5,6 and 7,8. The findings of this study suggest that kava lactones may be useful for the development of bioactive herbicides and fungicides.
(https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0519461)

Backleh, M., Ekici, P., Leupold, G. & Parlar, H. Quantitative elimination of flavokavines A and B from Kava Kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst) by isoelectric focused adsorptive bubble separation. Naturwissenschaften 90, 366-369 (2003).

Abstract:
Adsorptive bubble separation, though still rarely used, is a suitable method for enrichment of surface-active macromolecules such as enzymes and proteins. There is a lack of investigations with small molecules, which can also be separated from complex mixtures by this method. In this work, an aqueous extract of Kava Kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst) was used as a model system. Enrichment of undesirable Flavokavine A (7) and Flavokavine B (8) in the foam was influenced by the pH value, the amount of saponin as surface active substance, and the flow rate of the foam-forming gas. Efficiency was highest with diluted samples at pH 6.5. Under these conditions, transfer of Kavapyrone (1–6) to the foam was negligible.
(https://doi.org/10.1007/s00114-003-0440-5)

Lebot, V., Kaoh, J. & Legendre, L. High-Throughput Analysis of Flavokawains in Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) Roots, Chips and Powders and Correlations with Their Acetonic Extracts Absorbance. Food Analytical Methods 13, 1583-1593 (2020).

Abstract:
Kava is a non-alcoholic beverage prepared by cold water extraction of the ground roots and stumps of Piper methysticum Forst. f. Kava contains flavokawains (FKs) which have been suspected of being potentially cytotoxic. Current HPLC protocols are not adapted to high-throughput quantification before export. The objectives of the present study were (i) to analyse with HPTLC the individual FKs in roots, stump, stems and peelings of four varieties grown in a controlled environment; (ii) to quantify FKs in 1053 commercial samples exported from Vanuatu in 2017-18-19 (370 roots, 381 chips and 302 powders) and (iii) to assess the efficiency of a colorimetric test for routine control. HPTLC plate scanning at 355 nm offered good linearity for three FKs with R2 > 0.99 and RSD < 3.0%. High total FKs (> 14 mg/g DW) were found in poor-quality varieties and in peelings unsuitable for consumption. Plant parts known for their good quality, such as roots and peeled stumps of noble varieties, presented low total FKs (< 7 mg/g). Great variation was observed in exported roots (2.53–24.56 mg/g), chips (2.73–18.03 mg/g) and powders (2.92–16.41 mg/g). HPTLC proved reproducible for the high-throughput quantification of FKs in kava. A positive relationship was confirmed between the absorbance of the acetonic extract and the total FKs (R2= 0.5211) (n = 1053). Multivariate analyses revealed that in roots, chips and powders, the three FKs are significantly correlated with high absorbance values. The absorbance of the acetonic extract gives a fair assessment of the FK content in kava products.
(https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12161-020-01781-9)

Open Access Document
Balick, M. J. & Lee, R. Traditional Uses of Sakau (Kava) in Pohnpei - Lessons For Integrative Medicine (Balick, Lee). Alternative Therapies In Health & Medicine 8, 96-98 (2002).

(https://sciweb.nybg.org/science2/pdfs/mb/Kava.pdf)

Liu, Y., Lund, J. A., Murch, S. J. & Brown, P. N. Single-Lab Validation for Determination of Kavalactones and Flavokavains in Piper methysticum (Kava). Planta Med. 84, 1213-1218 (2018).

Abstract:
Piper methysticum (Kava) is a plant whose roots are used in the preparation of traditional beverages with spiritual, medicinal, and social importance for the Pacific Islanders. Kava is also sold as a herbal supplement or recreational beverage consumed for its mild inebriating effect in Europe and North America. With an ongoing interest in the safety and quality of kava products, it is necessary to develop a validated method for determination of kava chemical composition to ensure confidence in quality assessment. Thus, an high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) method was developed, optimized, and validated for determining six major kavalactones and three flavokavains in kava raw materials and finished products based on AOAC single-laboratory validation guidelines. This is the first fully validated analytical method for measuring kavalactones and flavokavains in a single run. The separation of the analytes was achieved in 10 min with an Agilent Poroshell C18 column using gradient separation. The sample was extracted with methanol first and then acetone. The signals were detected at 240 nm and 355 nm. The limit of quantification was under 1.2 µg/mL (0.3 mg/g) for kavalactones and under 0.35 µg/mL (0.01 mg/g) for flavokavains. The Horwitz ratio values described ranged from 0.3 to 1.82. The spike recovery experiments showed an accuracy between 92 and 105% for all analytes. The results of the study demonstrate that the method is fit for the purpose of determining methysticin, dihydromethysticin, kavain, dihydrokavain, yangonin, desmethoxyyangonin, flavokavain A, flavokavain B, and flavokavain C in kava raw material and finished products (dry-filled capsule, liquid phytocaps, and tincture).
(https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0637-2400)

Lebot, V. & Levesque, J. Evidence for conspecificity of Piper methysticum Forst. f. and Piper wichmannii C. DC. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 24, 775-782 (1996).

Abstract:
Morphological, chemical, cytological and genetic evidence demonstrating the absence of taxonomic distinction between Piper methysticum and Piper wichmannii are reviewed. Piper methysticum is not a separate species, but rather a group of sterile cultivars selected from somatic mutants of P. wichmannii. As P. methysticum was described first (1786), it has priority and P. wichmannii (1910) is superfluous. A new subspecific classification is suggested that makes a distinction between the sterile cultivars (P. methysticum var. methysticum) and the wild populations (P. methysticum var. Wichmannii).
(https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-1978(96)00048-8)


Ferreira, J. V., Pierotte, I. C., Pianetti, G. A., & César, I. C. (2020). Simultaneous quantitation of kavalactones in kava dry extracts: comparison of multi-standards and single standard validation approaches. Phytochemical Analysis.

Abstract:
Introduction
Dried extracts of Piper methysticum G. Forst, also known as kava, has been widely used due to its anxiolytic and sedative properties. In order to assure the quality of these extracts, it is essential to accurately quantify kavalactones, known as the active principle.

Objectives
To develop and validate an analytical method for the simultaneous quantification of six major kavalactones (kavain, dihydrokavain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin, yangonin and demethoxyyangonin) in kava extracts, comparing multi‐standards and single standard validation approaches.

Material and methods
Separation was performed using a C18 column, water/methanol/acetonitrile/2‐propanol (66:07:09:18 v/v/v/v) and detection at 245 and 350 nm. A full method validation was performed, employing analytical standards for each compound. Commercial kava dried extracts were assayed and the results obtained using the method validated for six kavalactone standards were compared with those obtained when only kavain was used as standard.

Results
Baseline resolution for all kavalactones was obtained in short run time (15 min). Although the total kavalactone content varied between samples, a similar distribution profile was observed. When the method validated with all six analytical standards was compared to the calibration using only kavain standard, kavalactone contents were considerably different (from 7.57 to 36.53%).

Conclusion
The obtained results demonstrate the importance of a validated method using individual kavalactone standards for the effective quality control of kava extracts. In a next step, the method needs to be adapted to also include flavokavin B (FKB), as an important authentication marker to distinguish between the accepted variety “noble Kava” and the toxic “two‐day Kava”.
(https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.3019)

Open Access Article
Lebot, V., Michalet, S. & Legendre, L. Kavalactones and Flavokavins Profiles Contribute to Quality Assessment of Kava (Piper methysticum G. Forst.), the Traditional Beverage of the Pacific. Beverages 5, 34 (2019).

Abstract:
Kava (Piper methysticum) is increasingly traded internationally and there is need for a rapid method to analyze kava raw material before export. The objectives of the present study were: (i) to develop a simple and robust protocol for high throughput simultaneous quantification of kavalactones (KLs) and flavokavins (FKs) in kava and (ii) to assess its potential for quality control. Methysticin; dihydromethysticin; kavain; desmethoxyyangonin; dihydrokavain; yangonin; and flavokavin A, B and C were quantified using HPTLC in acetonic extracts of 174 kava varieties. UHPLC analysis was conducted on a subset of six varieties representing the genetic variation of the species. The genetically distinct groups of nobles, two-day and wichmannii varieties were clearly differentiated and multivariate analyses of UHPLC and HPTLC data were congruent. Noble varieties have significantly low FKs/KLs (0.13) and high kavain/flavokavin B (K/FKB = 7.31). Two-day and wichmannii varieties are characterized by high FKs/KLs (0.36, 0.21) and low K/FKB (1.5, 1.7). A high-throughput HPTLC protocol was developed with a total analytical time of 50 min for 20 samples and only 10 mL of mobile phase. The use of acetone, sonication and two different detection wavelengths improves the accuracy compared to previous HPLC studies and confirms that kava varieties exhibit distinct chemotypes clearly differentiated by their FKs/KLs profiles. These results will strengthen the use of Codex Alimentarius regional standards.
(https://doi.org/10.3390/beverages5020034)
(https://agritrop.cirad.fr/592382/)

Open Access Article
Van, T. M., Xuan, T. D., Minh, T. N. & Quan, N. V. Isolation and purification of potent growth inhibitors from piper methysticum root. Molecules 23, (2018).

Abstract:
Piper methysticum (kava) root is known to possess promising weed suppressing activity. The present study was conducted to search for potent plant growth inhibitors from the root of this medicinal pepper plant. The ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract exhibited the strongest reduction on growth of Raphanus sativus (radish) (IC50 shoot and root growth = 172.00 and 51.31 µg/mL respectively) among solvent extracts. From this active extract, nine potent growth inhibitors involved in the inhibitory activities of P. methysticum root were isolated, purified and characterized by column chromatography (CC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The six fractions purified by CC included two flavanones: 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavanone (C1) and 5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy-6,8-dimethylflavanone (matteucinol, C2) and six kavalactones: 5,6-dehydro-kavain (C3), a mixture of kavain and yagonin (C4), yagonin (C5) and dihydro-5,6-dehydrokavain, 7,8-dihydrokavain, dihydromethysticin and methysticin (C6). The amounts of 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavanone, matteucinol, 5,6-dehydrokavain and yangonin were 0.76, 2.50, 2.75 and 2.09 mg/g dry weight (DW), respectively. The two flavanones C1 and C2 exhibited the strongest inhibition on shoot elongation (IC50 = 120.22 and 248.03 µg/mL, respectively), whilst the two kavalactone mixtures C4 and C6 showed the highest suppression on root growth of R. sativus (IC50 = 7.70 and 15.67 µg/mL, respectively). This study was the first to report the purification and inhibitory activities of the two flavanones 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavanone and matteucinol in P. methysticum root. The isolated constituents from P. methysticum root including the flavanones C1 and C2 and the mixtures C4 and C6 may possess distinct modes of action on plant growth. Findings of this study highlighted that the combinations of hexane-ethyl acetate by 9:1 and 8:2 ratios successfully purified flavanones and kavalactones in P. methysticum root.
(https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23081907)
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/30065174/)

Open Access Article
Lebot, Vincent, & Patricia Simeoni. "Is the Quality of Kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) Responsible for Different Geographical Patterns." Ethnobotany Research and Applications [Online], 2 (2004): 019-028. Web. 8 Apr. 2021

Abstract:
We argue that kava (Piper methysticum Forst. f.) is a Pacific domesticate that originated in Melanesia. We provide botanical, chemical, genetic and cultural evidence to sug- gest that farmers in the northern part of Vanuatu were the first to select the species as an asexually reproduced root crop. From Vanuatu, cultivars were carried eastward into Polynesia and westward into areas of New Guinea and Micronesia. Using herbarium data, isozyme and AFLP markers, we correlate the information gained from field surveys to HPLC analyses and attempt to demonstrate that che- motypes result from a selection process that is still active. The selection of particular mutants by farmers must have been, and still is, a rational process to preserve new char- acters when they appeared. Growers have selected culti- vars to improve the chemical composition responsible for the physiological effects. Field experiments demonstrate that the chemotype is genetically controlled although the kavalactones content is determined by both genetics and environmental factors. The control and improvement of quality is therefore a cultural approach that aims at the identification of locations suitable for the cultivation of par- ticular kava varieties. The appreciation of quality, appears to reflect the different cultures within Melanesia and be- tween Micronesian, Polynesian and Melanesian consum- ers. Different ways of benefiting from the psychoactive properties of the plant explain the use of particular che- motypes and therefore the selection operated to preserve them. Clearly, the word kava refers to different beverages that produce different physiological effects according to what consumers desire.
(http://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/34/0)

Open Access Article
Lopez-Avila, V., & Yefchak, G. (2009). Identification of Compounds in Commercial Kava Extracts by Gas Chromatography with Electron Ionization High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. The Open Analytical Chemistry Journal, 3(1), 22–31.

Abstract: This paper discusses the identification of kava lactones and related compounds by gas chromatography (GC) and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (QTOFMS) with an electron ionization source. Three herbal preparations from different sources were analyzed by both GC-low-resolution MS and GC-high-resolution MS. The exact mass measurements generated with a research QTOFMS with mass accuracies in the low ppm range were combined with the isotope abundance ratios to confirm the presence of kava lactones and to identify additional compounds present in the Kava extracts. Although the availability of standards is of upmost importance to unequivocally confirm compound identities, the combination of accurate mass (< 3 ppm average mass accuracy), isotope abundance ratios, high resolution (>10,000) and literature information on the approximate composition of the herbal extracts provides a powerful analytical tool to help identify organic compounds in herbal extracts.
(https://doi.org/10.2174/1874065000903010022)
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